Imaging of extracranial obstructive venous disease

The venous system of the head and neck generally consists of dural sinuses and cerebral veins that constitute two different vascular entities. The two cervical venous entities are not self-isolated and present with compensatory capabilities through complex connections within the craniocervical junction. This article summarizes the latest knowledge on the use of noninvasive and invasive imaging modalities in the detection of extracranial obstructive venous disease, intraluminal abnormalities, and collateral venous outflow. Moreover, it outlines the particular advantages and disadvantages of the imaging modalities at hand for detection of these abnormalities and review of the possible future directions of this field.