Health risk assessment of humans exposed to soil and dust trace elements from e-waste sites in Bangladesh

Elevated levels of trace elements are thought to pose a serious health risk to workers in e-waste recycling facilities. We evaluated the distribution, contamination, and human health risks of trace elements in soil and dust from e-waste exposed and non-exposed sites in Bangladesh. Thirty-one soil (20 exposed; 11 non-exposed) and 31 dust samples (21 exposed; 10 non-exposed) were collected and analyzed for Pb, Cd, Hg, As, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Zn, Be, Co, Se, and V using ICP-MS. The mean concentrations of Pb, Hg, Cu, and Zn concentrations were significantly higher in soil (587, 25.57, 2,912, 894 mg/kg) and dust (439, 59, 617, 1,201 mg/kg) than in non-exposed soil (15.94, 0.07, 23.71, 121 mg/kg; all P: ≤ 0.001) and dust (15, 3.56, 19, 213 mg/kg; all P: ≤ 0.001). Children were more vulnerable than adults to non-carcinogenic risks from ingestion, while non-carcinogenic risks from dermal and inhalation exposure were negligible. Pb, Hg, and Cu from soil, as well as Pb, Hg, and Cr from dust, showed a hazard index (HI) greater than 1, indicating a risk higher than the acceptable level for children and adults at the exposed sites, while the risk to a reference child and adults was negligible. Cr and Ni contributed to cancer risk only when their concentrations reached their maximum level, exceeding the permissible limit of 1 × 10^-4. This study demonstrates a significant accumulation of trace elements in e-waste recycling sites, where exposure through soil and dust poses environmental and human health risks, particularly for children. This underscores an urgent need for regulatory authorities to implement control measures and deploy awareness programs to limit trace element pollution and mitigate its impacts on the environment and human health.