Emerging two-dimensional nanomaterial and its modifications for enhanced antiviral applications: A review

Highly resilient pathogens, especially viruses and antibiotic-resistant bacteria, present formidable challenges to public health due to their ability to evade conventional treatments. Traditional microbial disinfection methods, such as chemical deactivation and physical filtration, often fail to effectively neutralize viruses, thus leading to harmful by-products. In light of these limitations, there is a growing need for innovative solutions to address viral disinfection. Photocatalytic microbial disinfection has emerged as a promising approach, primarily explored for bacterial pathogens. However, its antiviral potential remains underinvestigated. Two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials, with their unique physico-chemical properties, represent a breakthrough in photocatalytic technology, offering advantages such as high surface area, tunable optical characteristics and enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This review assesses the photocatalytic properties of emerging 2D materials - such as graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), graphitic carbon nitride (g-C 3 N 4), black phosphorus (BP) and MXenes - focusing on their potential for antiviral applications. While much of the current research emphasizes antibacterial activity, this review explores how functionalization, doping and composite formation of these materials could enhance their antiviral capabilities, offering a novel avenue for combating viral pathogens and addressing global health challenges.